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Critical Minerals

“Mineral criticality refers to the relative importance and vulnerability of certain minerals whose availability and responsible, sustainable use are fundamental to advancing national and regional industrialization, enabling the green and digital transitions, and ensuring that Africa’s mineral wealth contributes to long-term development and equitable local benefits.”

Prioritizing these 23 minerals including Rare Earth Elements is justified for several reasons:

  • Managing supply risk – Because production of several critical minerals is highly concentrated in a few countries, mapping Africa’s resources helps diversify global supply chains and strengthens the continent’s bargaining position.
  • Alignment with global transitions – Many of the selected minerals, such as cobalt, lithium, rare earth elements, graphite, and nickel, are vital to batteries, renewable energy systems, and digital infrastructure, making them cornerstones of the global green and digital transitions.
  • Economic diversification and industrialization – A clear understanding of the distribution of these minerals enables governments to design industrial strategies that move beyond raw material exports toward local processing, value addition, and job creation.
  • Regional integration – No single African country holds all 23 minerals in abundance. A continental approach to mapping highlights complementarities, encouraging cross-border cooperation under the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA).
  • Sustainability and governance – By mapping these minerals comprehensively, Africa can embed environmental and social safeguards from the outset, positioning itself as a responsible supplier in global markets that increasingly demand transparent and ethical sourcing.

African Critical Minerals Dataset

1. Cobalt

Cobalt is a key mineral powering the global energy transition, crucial for manufacturing lithium-ion batteries used in electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy storage, and aerospace technologies (USGS, 2025; IEA, 2023). Africa—particularly the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)—anchors this supply, supplying roughly three-quarters of global mine production and holding roughly half of the world’s known reserves (USGS, 2025; UNCTAD, 2023). Its applications extend from EV batteries and smart grids to defense equipment and medical devices, due to its high strength and heat resistance (African Union, 2009; IEA, 2023). As electric mobility and sustainable urbanisation accelerate, cobalt’s role in the Fourth Industrial Revolution becomes increasingly pronounced (AU, 2023; UNCTAD, 2023). The expanding hydrogen economy and the global decarbonisation drive are expected to further elevate cobalt’s strategic value (IEA, 2023; Energy Capital & Power, 2024).

2. Lithium

Lithium is essential to the global energy transition, powering electric vehicles (EVs), smart grids, and renewable energy systems through efficient battery technologies (International Energy Agency, 2022; UNCTAD, 2025). African nations such as Zimbabwe, Mali, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) host valuable hard-rock lithium reserves, which have attracted significant global interest (Goodenough et al., 2021). As a cornerstone of the Fourth Industrial Revolution (4IR), lithium underpins innovations in the Internet of Things (IoT), medical devices, and defense applications (UNCTAD, 2025). It also plays a critical role in space exploration, providing long-duration power for spacecraft. With demand accelerating worldwide, Africa’s expanding role in lithium mining presents major opportunities for sustainable development and technological leadership (International Energy Agency, 2022).

3. Platinum Group Metals (PGMs)

Platinum group metals (PGMs)—notably platinum, palladium, rhodium, and iridium—are indispensable to the global clean-energy transition (International Energy Agency, 2022; UNCTAD, 2025). They catalyze hydrogen fuel cells and electrolysers, making them central to the development of the hydrogen economy (World Platinum Investment Council, 2023). PGMs also power automotive catalytic converters, reducing vehicle emissions and supporting greener transport (US Geological Survey, 2024). In defense applications, their exceptional thermal stability and conductivity enhance radar systems, missile-guidance technologies, and advanced military electronics (US Geological Survey, 2024). With Africa—particularly South Africa and Zimbabwe—holding nearly 90% of global PGM reserves, the continent is uniquely positioned to lead in the next wave of sustainable-technology development (World Platinum Investment Council, 2023; US Geological Survey, 2024). South Africa holds ~90% of global PGM reserves and remains the leading producer (USGS MCS 2025).

4. Manganese

Manganese is a vital mineral underpinning both industrial development and the global energy transition (U.S. Geological Survey, 2024). Its dominant role in steel production sustains the infrastructure required for wind turbines, solar plants, and smart grids (U.S. Geological Survey, 2024; United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2025). Increasingly, manganese is also critical in lithium-ion battery chemistries, making it indispensable for electric vehicles and renewable energy storage. Africa—particularly South Africa and Gabon, which together hold nearly half of global reserves—has emerged as a strategic supplier (U.S. Geological Survey, 2024). As Fourth Industrial Revolution technologies accelerate, global demand for manganese is projected to surge (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, 2025), linking digital transformation directly with clean-energy growth. Beyond energy and infrastructure, manganese’s strength and durability also make it essential in military-grade armor and munitions.

5. Graphite

Graphite is essential for lithium-ion battery anodes, driving its demand amid the global energy transition and the rise of electric vehicles. Key African producers like Mozambique and Tanzania contribute significantly to the global supply. Beyond batteries, graphite’s high conductivity and thermal stability make it valuable in electronics, fuel cells, and renewable energy technologies. With accelerating clean-energy adoption, graphite’s role in strategic supply chains will continue to grow substantially (Wattlestone, 2023).

6. Copper

Copper’s high conductivity makes it vital for electrical wiring, renewable energy, and electric vehicles, with the African Copperbelt in the DRC and Zambia supplying much of the global demand (Nkulu et al. 2022; International Copper Association 2023). It is essential in solar panels, wind turbines, energy storage, and smart grids supporting low-carbon economies (IEA 2024; World Bank 2023). Copper also plays a key role in EV batteries, defense electronics, and medical devices like MRI machines and antimicrobial surfaces (USGS 2023). As green technologies expand, copper demand will rise, driving innovation and economic growth (McKinsey & Company, 2024).

7. Nickel

Nickel is crucial for high-energy-density EV battery cathodes and grid storage, supporting electric mobility and renewable energy growth. Africa supplies about 4.2% of global nickel, with South Africa, Madagascar, the DRC, and Tanzania as key producers (Statistics South Africa 2025; Minerals Council South Africa 2025). Its strength and corrosion resistance make it essential for solar panels, wind turbines, fuel cells, and hydrogen infrastructure (IEA 2024). Nickel alloys also reinforce defense armor, aerospace components, and advanced engines, highlighting its strategic technological role.

8. Bauxite

Bauxite is the primary ore of aluminum and underpins lightweight infrastructure, packaging, aerospace, and electrical applications. Guinea holds the world’s largest bauxite reserves, positioning Africa as a critical supplier of aluminum raw materials. This abundant resource offers the continent significant economic opportunities through exports and investment. Currently, most of the value is locked in raw ore shipments rather than refined products. By developing local aluminum processing, African countries can capture more value, create jobs, and drive sustainable industrial growth (Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2022).

9. Vanadium

Vanadium is vital for enhancing the strength and performance of steel used in critical sectors such as aerospace, construction, and defense (Boni et al., 2023; Energy Capital & Power, 2023). Its application in redox-flow batteries makes it key for large-scale, long-duration renewable-energy storage, supporting the transition to smart, decarbonized grids. Africa, particularly South Africa and Zimbabwe, is well positioned as a major vanadium supplier for clean technologies. Realizing this potential depends on sustainable mining and local value-added processing (African Union, 2009; IEA, 2023; Mo Ibrahim Foundation, 2022).

10. Chromium

Chromium, South Africa and Zimbabwe together hold nearly 93% of global reserves, making Africa central to global supply (USGS, 2024). Chromium, chiefly obtained from chromite ore, is indispensable for manufacturing stainless steel, which typically contains 10–20% chromium to ensure strength and corrosion resistance. In 2023, South Africa led global production with approximately 18 million tonnes of chromite ore, supplying critical sectors such as aerospace, defense, and advanced manufacturing. The global chromium market, valued at USD 21.5 billion in 2022, is forecast to expand to USD 33.1 billion by 2030 (African Union, 2009; IEA, 2023; USGS, 2024; Grand View Research, 2023).

11. Uranium

Uranium powers ~10% of the world’s electricity across ~440 reactors. African producers—namely Namibia, Niger, and South Africa—provide around 18% of both global reserves and mined output, with Namibia alone contributing ~11% in 2023. That year, global mine production (56,000 t U₃O₈) fell short of demand (77,500 t), pushing prices above $90/lb. As nuclear energy expands—especially in Asia and via modular technologies—uranium’s role in clean energy and energy security continues to grow (World Nuclear Association, 2024; USGS, 2024).

12. Tantalum (Coltan)

Tantalum’s unique properties—high thermal stability, corrosion resistance, and excellent dielectric qualities—are crucial for electronics, aerospace, and medical technology. Much supply originates from conflict-affected regions in Central Africa, raising ethical concerns. Diversified, transparent supply chains are required to ensure sustainable development. The mineral’s critical role in advanced technologies makes responsible sourcing a global priority. Recent studies stress collaboration among governments, industry, and international organizations to improve traceability and reduce dependence on high-risk areas (Pedro 2025; African Union 2023; Tantalum-Niobium International Study Center 2025).

13. Iron Ore

Iron ore in 2025 is indispensable to Africa’s steel production and infrastructure development—South Africa produces about 116 Mt annually and Liberia around 11 Mt, while Guinea’s Simandou project is set to add another 60 Mt in its first full year—sustaining domestic industrialization and accounting for a major share of the continent’s mineral exports. This makes iron ore as strategically vital to Africa’s economy as any other critical mineral (USGS, 2025; Australian Resources & Investment, 2023; AFSIC, 2025; African Union, 2009).

14. Titanium (Ilmenite & Rutile)

Titanium Africa holds over 700 million tonnes of heavy-mineral sands, supplying 30%+ of global ilmenite and rutile. Key deposits—Richards Bay, Mandena, and Moma—fuel titanium production for aerospace, auto, and EV industries. Local value addition faces hurdles from environmental rules, dredging costs, and energy-intensive processing. Boosting pigment plants, slag upgrading, and renewables could unlock downstream benefits and greater returns (African Union 2025; AFSIC 2025).

15. Zirconium

Zirconium sourced from heavy-mineral sands in South Africa and Mozambique offers exceptional heat resistance and low neutron absorption, making it indispensable for advanced ceramics and nuclear reactor components (AMV, 2024). Its durable, corrosion-resistant alloys and oxide ceramics play a key role in hydrogen fuel cells and electrolyzers, accelerating the clean-energy transition (AU, 2023; Unlocking the Potential, 2023). Zirconium’s biocompatibility supports medical implants, and its high strength-to-weight ratio benefits aerospace components, cementing its status as a strategic mineral for low-carbon and cutting-edge industrial technologies (Zirconium Industry Association, 2023; SAM, 2024).

16. Tin

Tin is chiefly obtained from cassiterite deposits in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, and Nigeria, together making up about 10–12% of global mine production. With a low melting point, excellent electrical conductivity, and strong corrosion resistance, tin is indispensable for solder in electronics, solar panels, and the growing electronics content of electric vehicles (AU 2023; Unlocking the Potential 2023). Demand from clean-energy systems and advanced technologies is raising tin’s strategic importance (International Tin Association 2024; Crux Investor 2024).

17. Zinc

Zinc plays a vital role in the energy transition, including zinc-ion batteries that offer safer, potentially more sustainable options versus lithium-ion. It is widely used in renewable-energy technologies (solar, wind) and provides corrosion-resistant coatings essential to infrastructure. Zinc also supports medical applications (wound healing, implants). As clean-energy and storage scale, zinc’s role in sustainable technology continues to rise (Unlocking the Potential 2023; International Zinc Association 2022).

18. Phosphate

Phosphate minerals supply phosphorus essential for root growth, flowering, and seed development—foundational to fertilizers that underpin global agriculture and food security. Africa, led by Morocco’s 50 billion tonnes—about 70% of the continent’s stock and nearly half of the world’s total—commands a central role (World Population Review 2025; AU 2023). With the world’s population nearing 9 billion by 2030, fertilizer demand is set to surge, positioning Africa’s abundant phosphates as drivers of resilience, jobs, and export-led growth (Unlocking the Potential 2023; IFA 2024).

19. Fluorspar (Fluorite)

Fluorspar (CaF₂) is the essential feedstock for hydrofluoric acid, underpinning refrigerants, aluminium fluorides, and LiPF₆ electrolytes for lithium-ion batteries (USGS, 2020). Its fluxing properties in steel and aluminium smelting lower melting points and remove impurities, boosting efficiency and quality (USGS 2020; PW Consulting 2025). Recognized as a critical mineral by the EU, US, and AfCFTA, fluorspar supports advanced fluorochemicals for EVs and high-performance coatings in solar systems (AU 2023; Benchmark Mineral Intelligence 2024). With Africa holding roughly 41 Mt of reserves—about 15% of the global total, led by South Africa—the continent can increase resilience and value through downstream processing and clean-energy supply-chain integration (Unlocking the Potential 2023; The Oregon Group 2024).

20. Tungsten

Tungsten’s exceptional tensile strength, ultra-high melting point, and durability make it indispensable in aerospace alloys, precision electronics, and nuclear-energy components (USGS 2021). Its superior wear resistance and electrical conductivity underpin cutting tools, electrodes, and contacts, while tungsten-based additives boost lithium-ion battery performance in EVs (AU 2023; Benchmark Mineral Intelligence 2024). Africa holds substantial tungsten endowments—Rwanda, Namibia, and South Africa lead—with Rwanda’s Nyakabingo Mine yielding >120 t/month and reserves sustaining 40+ years (East African Mining News 2025; KT Press 2025). Targeted downstream processing and workforce development can secure Africa’s role as a key global supplier (Unlocking the Potential 2023; PW Consulting 2025).

21. Silicon

Silicon, derived from quartz and high-purity silica sands, is foundational for semiconductors and photovoltaic cells in solar panels (Interesting Engineering 2023; Electronics & You 2025). Africa hosts silica-rich deposits in Ethiopia, Uganda, Nigeria, and South Africa, positioning the continent for a potential role in global tech supply chains (ITWeb Africa 2025; Premium Times Nigeria 2023). While refining and industrial capacity remain limited, targeted investment in processing infrastructure and skills could enable Africa to capture value in high-purity silicon for electronics and renewable-energy systems (AU 2023; World Economic Forum 2025).

22. Arsenic

Arsenic is mainly used for semiconductors, LEDs, and solar cells for smart devices, telecommunications, and data infrastructure. While direct energy-storage applications are limited, arsenic occurs in copper and lead alloys essential for EVs and renewable systems. Its trace presence in lithium-ion batteries can influence performance, and its resilience under extreme conditions is valuable in military-grade electronics. As clean-energy technologies grow, arsenic’s supporting role will remain important, though toxicity and supply-chain risks persist.

Rare Earth Elements

Rare Earth Elements (REEs)—grouped into light and heavy categories—have emerged as indispensable enablers of clean-energy technologies, advanced industrial applications, defense capabilities, and medical innovations central to the Fourth Industrial Revolution. While often described as “rare,” their strategic importance stems less from absolute scarcity than from the uneven distribution of economically viable deposits and the complex, resource-intensive processes required for their extraction and separation.

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) are a family of seventeen metallic elements conventionally divided into two categories:
  • Light Rare Earth Elements (LREEs)—such as lanthanum, cerium, and neodymiu
  • Heavy Rare Earth Elements (HREEs)—such as dysprosium, terbium, and yttrium.

This classification reflects key differences in geological occurrence, processing complexity, and strategic economic value, with HREEs generally rarer, harder to extract, and more geopolitically sensitive.

Rare Earth Elements Datasets

1.Scandium (Sc, Z = 21, REE-associated)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Laterites, mafic–ultramafic intrusions, phosphate and bauxite residues.

Representative projects: Occurrences in Guinea, Mozambique (bauxite), Morocco, Tunisia (phosphates), South Africa, Namibia, Tanzania (intrusives); no code-compliant reserves (USGS 2024). [1]

Principal uses: Al–Sc alloys, SOFC electrolytes, specialty lighting.

[1]The reason no African countries are listed under scandium is that — unlike for neodymium, praseodymium, or dysprosium — no African country has yet declared code-compliant scandium reserves or even advanced projects under JORC, NI 43-101, or USGS reporting.That said, scandium mineralisation and by-product potential does exist in Africa, but it remains early-stage, conceptual, or incidental rather than formalised in resource tables. That’s why the text says only “early-stage by-product concepts” and no country names — because at present, the references are scattered in grey literature and no project has advanced far enough to be reported as a reserve or even a resource in the USGS Critical Minerals Review 2024 — Scandium chapter. See.   USGS. Critical Minerals Review 2024 – Scandium Chapter. Reston, VA: U.S. Geological Survey, 2024. https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/critical-minerals-review2024

2 Lanthanum (La, Z = 57, LREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Abundant LREE in bastnäsite and monazite; common in carbonatites (e.g., Ngualla, Songwe) and mineral-sands monazite concentrates.

Representative projects: Ngualla (Tanzania): Carbonatite hosting La within the overall LREE Basket;[1] Songwe Hill (Malawi): Carbonatite with La among key LREE constituents reported in technical filings.[2]Principal uses: Petroleum fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) catalysts, optical glass, nickel–metal hydride (NiMH) battery alloys, hydrogen storage, polishing compounds.

[1] Peak Rare Earths Ltd. Ngualla Rare Earth Project – Definitive Feasibility Study. Company Technical Report, 2023. https://www.peakrareearths.com

[2] Mkango Resources Ltd. Songwe Hill Rare Earths Project – Feasibility Study and Technical Filings. Company Report, 2023. https://www.mkango.ca

3.Cerium (Ce, Z = 58, LREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Dominant LREE in bastnäsite/monazite; widely present in African carbonatites and mineral-sands by-products (e.g., Madagascar, Mozambique).

Representative projects : Ngualla (Tanzania) and Songwe Hill (Malawi): Ce is a major LREE component in both projects.[1]

Principal uses: Auto catalysts (oxygen storage), glass polishing (CeO₂), UV-blocking glass, fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) catalysts.

[1] Peak Rare Earths Ltd. Ngualla Rare Earth Project – Definitive Feasibility Study. Company Technical Report, 2023. https://www.peakrareearths.com; Mkango Resources Ltd. Songwe Hill Rare Earths Project – Feasibility Study and Technical Filings. Company Report, 2023. https://www.mkango.ca

4. Praseodymium (Pr, Z = 59, LREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Co-occurs with Nd in bastnäsite/monazite; NdPr is the standard market unit.

Representative projects : Ngualla (Tanzania): Flagship NdPr project[1]; Steenkampskraal (South Africa): Monazite concentrate with strong Nd+Pr content.[2]

Principal uses: Alloyed with Nd in Nd–Fe–B magnets (efficiency & high-temperature performance), pigments/ceramics, lasers.

[1] Peak Rare Earths Ltd. Ngualla Rare Earth Project – Definitive Feasibility Study. Company Technical Report, 2023. https://www.peakrareearths.com

[2] Steenkampskraal Holdings Ltd. Steenkampskraal Rare Earths Mine – Project Overview and Resource Update. Company Disclosure, 2022. https://www.steenkampskraal.com

5. Neodymium (Nd, Z = 60, LREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Dominant hosts are monazite and bastnäsite in African carbonatites (Ngualla, Songwe) and monazite-vein systems (Steenkampskraal).

Representative projects: Ngualla (Tanzania, Peak Rare Earths): Advanced carbonatite with strong NdPr component.¹; Steenkampskraal (South Africa): Historic high-grade monazite mine under redevelopment.

Principal uses: Neodymium–iron–boron (Nd–Fe–B) permanent magnets (electric vehicle (EV) motors, wind turbines, industrial drives), lasers, optical glass.[1]

[1] Roskill / Wood Mackenzie. Rare Earths: Outlook to 2035. Market Report, 2023. https://www.woodmac.com/reports/metals-rare-earths-outlook-to-2035

6. Promethium (Pm, Z = 61, LREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: No stable isotopes; occurs only in trace radiogenic amounts. No economic ore worldwide.

Representative projects : — None (global reality).

Principal uses: Niche: betavoltaics, gauges, scientific research.[1]

[1] International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Promethium and Unstable Isotopes in Research and Applications. Technical Report Series, Vienna, 2021. https://www.iaea.org/publications

7. Samarium (Sm, Z = 62, LREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Occurs with other LREEs in monazite/bastnäsite; modest credits in carbonatites and mineral-sands monazite.

Representative projects: Ngualla (Tanzania) and Songwe Hill (Malawi): Reported as a secondary credit.[1]

Principal uses: Sm–Co high-temperature magnets, neutron absorbers, Sm-153 radiopharmaceuticals.

[1] Peak Rare Earths Ltd. Ngualla Rare Earth Project – Definitive Feasibility Study. Company Technical Report, 2023. https://www.peakrareearths.com; Mkango Resources Ltd. Songwe Hill Rare Earths Project – Feasibility Study and Technical Filings. Company Report, 2023. https://www.mkango.ca

8. Europium (Eu, Z = 63, LREE)*

Host minerals & deposit styles: Low-abundance LREE, often grouped with HREEs due to chemical behavior.

Representative projects: Ngualla (Tanzania) and Songwe Hill (Malawi); Eu present at trace–minor levels.[1]

Principal uses: Red phosphors (LEDs, displays), security inks, scintillators.

[1] Peak Rare Earths Ltd. Ngualla Rare Earth Project – Definitive Feasibility Study. Company Technical Report, 2023. https://www.peakrareearths.com; Mkango Resources Ltd. Songwe Hill Rare Earths Project – Feasibility Study and Technical Filings. Company Report, 2023. https://www.mkango.ca

9. Gadolinium (Gd, Z = 64, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Occurs with xenotime and as minor HREE in carbonatites or ionic-adsorption clay (IAC) systems.

Representative projects: Songwe Hill (Malawi): Minor HREE component.[1]; Ampasindava (Madagascar, IAC-type): Under evaluation.

Principal uses: MRI contrast agents, neutron capture/shielding, magnetocaloric R&D.

[1] Mkango Resources Ltd. Songwe Hill Rare Earths Project – Feasibility Study and Technical Filings. Company Report, 2023. https://www.mkango.ca

10. Terbium (Tb, Z = 65, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Occurs with Dy in xenotime and IAC systems; minor but high-value output.

Representative projects : Songwe Hill (Malawi): Minor Tb credit.⁵; Ampasindava (Madagascar, IAC-type): Reported potential Tb by-product.[1]

Principal uses: High-performance magnets, green phosphors (lighting/displays), fuel cells.

[1] Ibid.,

12. Holmium (Ho, Z = 67, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Minor HREE with xenotime or HREE-enriched carbonatites.

Representative projects : Songwe Hill (Malawi): Trace HREE credit.⁵; Ampasindava (Madagascar, IAC-style): Under evaluation.

Principal uses: Holmium:yttrium–aluminium garnet (Ho:YAG) lasers (medical, industrial), magnetic alloys, nuclear control rods.

13. Erbium (Er, Z = 68, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Trace–minor HREE, associated with xenotime/IAC and some carbonatites.

Representative projects : Songwe Hill (Malawi), Ampasindava (Madagascar) present in project models.

Principal uses: Telecom amplifiers (erbium-doped fiber optics ~1.55 µm), lasers, glass/ceramic colorants.

14 .Thulium (Tm, Z = 69, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Very low-abundance HREE; usually a trace by-product.

Representative projects : Songwe Hill (Malawi), Ampasindava (Madagascar) as trace-level occurrences.

Principal uses: ~2 µm solid-state lasers, Tm-170 portable X-ray sources, specialty optics.

15 .Ytterbium (Yb, Z = 70, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: HREE found in xenotime/IAC deposits and trace in carbonatites.

Representative projects : Songwe Hill (Malawi), Ampasindava (Madagascar): Reported as trace HREE credit.

Principal uses: High-power fiber lasers, sensors, specialty alloys.

16. Lutetium (Lu, Z = 71, HREE)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Rarest lanthanide; trace in xenotime/IAC systems.

Representative projects : Songwe Hill (Malawi), Ampasindava (Madagascar): Trace component, not economic driver.

Principal uses: Lu-177 cancer therapies, PET scintillators, catalysts, high-index optics.

17. Yttrium (Y, Z = 39, HREE-affiliated)

Host minerals & deposit styles: Occurs in xenotime and monazite; present in carbonatites and mineral sands.

Representative projects : Ngualla (Tanzania), Songwe Hill (Malawi): Y included in REO baskets; Madagascar/Mozambique mineral sands: Y-bearing xenotime/monazite by-products.

Principal uses: Phosphors (Y₂O₃:Eu red), ceramics (yttria-stabilized zirconia (YSZ)), yttrium–aluminium garnet (YAG) lasers, superconductors (yttrium barium copper oxide, YBCO).

References and Bibliography

Africa’s Strategic, Transitional, and Critical Minerals (ASTCM) Interactive and Dynamic Map
(Data Compilation & Curation; Ingestion; and Operational Deployment)

I. Data Compilation — Global & African Datasets, Surveys, and Portals

United States Geological Survey (USGS), National Minerals Information Center (NMIC). International Minerals Statistics & Information (IMSI).
  https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/international-minerals-statistics-and-information

United States Geological Survey (USGS). MRData — Mineral Resources Data System & Global Mineral Resources Map.
  https://mrdata.usgs.gov/

United States Geological Survey (USGS). Earth Mapping Resources Initiative (Earth MRI).
  https://www.usgs.gov/programs/earth-mri

International Energy Agency (IEA). Critical Minerals Data Explorer. Paris, 2024–2025.
  https://www.iea.org/articles/critical-minerals-data-explorer

European Commission (EC), Joint Research Centre (JRC). Raw Materials Information System (RMIS).
  https://rmis.jrc.ec.europa.eu/

European Commission (EC), Joint Research Centre (JRC) / European Soil Data Centre (ESDAC). Geological Map of Africa, Sheet No. 1. Ispra, 2024.
  https://esdac.jrc.ec.europa.eu/content/geological-map-africa-sheet-no-1

World Bank. Mapping Africa’s Mineral Resources for the Global Energy Transition. Washington, DC, 2021.
  https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documentsreports/documentdetail/345601621339822220

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). Mapping Africa’s Transition/Critical Minerals. Nairobi/Geneva, 2021–2023.
  https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/36648

Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD). Africa Major Mineral Deposits Web Map. Nairobi, 2023–2025.
https://rcmrd.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=dd3ed16f23434acb9cc71ad1d50499

Organisation of African Geological Surveys (OAGS). Pan-African Geoscience Cooperation. Pretoria, 2019–2025.
  https://www.oagsafrica.org/

Geological Society of Africa (GSA). African Mineral Resource Map. Nairobi, 2022.
  https://gsafr.org

African Energy Commission (AFREC). Energy and Minerals Statistics. Algiers, 2019–2025.
  https://afrec-energy.org/statistics

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Regional Office for Africa. Regional Programmes and Data Portals. Nairobi, 2019–2025.
  https://www.unep.org/regions/africa

II. Curation — Reserves, Production, Classification Codes, and Core Methods

United States Geological Survey (USGS). Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024–2025. Reston, VA.
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World Nuclear Association (WNA). World Uranium Mining Production. 2024.
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Johnson Matthey. Platinum Group Metals (PGM) Market Report. 2024.                                 https://matthey.com/documents/161599/509428/PGM-Market-Report-24.pdf/4d557d3b

Cobalt Institute. Cobalt Market Report (latest).
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Wattlestone. The Crucial Role of Graphite in the Energy Transition. London, 2023.
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Boni, M.; Martinelli, G.; Innocenzi, A.; La Torre, A. M. “Vanadium ore resources of the African continent.” Ore Geology Reviews, 2023.
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Australian Resources & Investment. “Major Iron Ore Developments in Africa.” 2023.
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The Conversation. “Democratic Republic of Congo cobalt dominance and local elites.” 2024.
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Haldar, S. K. Mineral Resource and Ore Reserve Estimation. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 2018.
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Dominy, S. C.; Noppé, M. A.; Annels, A. E. “Resource estimation and classification principles.” Applied Earth Science 111(2), 2002: 123–138.

 Madani, N. (2020). Mineral resource classification based on uncertainty measures in geological domains. In E. Topal (Ed.), Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium on Mine Planning and Equipment Selection, MPES 2019 (pp. 157-164). (Springer Series in Geomechanics and Geoengineering). Springer. 

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  • Hayes, S. K.; McCullough, E. A. “Critical minerals: A review of definitions and classifications.” Resources Policy 59, 2018: 192–199.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2018.05.008

  • Scheyder, E. (2024). The War Below: Lithium, Copper, and the Global Battle to Power Our Lives. New York: St. Martin’s Press.

https://www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-War-Below/Ernest-      Scheyder/9781668011812Goodenough, K. M.; Wall, F.; Manning, A. D. “The rare earth elements: Demand, global resources, and challenges for resourcing future generations.” Natural Resources Research 27, 2018: 201–216.
  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11053-017-9336-5

III. Ingestion — Operational Maps, Geographic Information System (GIS) Tools, Earth Observation, and Applied Sector Reports

United States Geological Survey (USGS). Geospatial PDF Map of GIS Data for Africa’s Mineral Industries. Reston, VA, 2024.
  https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/70243821

Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars (Wilson Center). Critical Mineral Maps – 2024. Washington, DC, 2024.
  https://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/critical-mineral-maps-2024

Africa Minerals Strategy Group (AMSG). Map of Critical Minerals in Africa by Country. 2024.
  https://amsg.africa/critical-minerals-map

ArcGIS Online. Global Critical Minerals — Operational Web Feature Layers. https://www.arcgis.com/home/search.html?q=Global%20Critical%20Minerals&type=Feature%20Layer

International Monetary Fund (IMF). Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa — Analytical Note “Digging for Opportunity: Harnessing Sub-Saharan Africa’s Wealth in Critical Minerals.” 2024.
  https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/REO/SSA/Issues/2024-04-19/reo-ssa-april-2024

Zero Carbon Analytics (ZCA). Developing Africa’s Mineral Resources: What Needs to Happen. London, 2024.
  https://zerocarbon-analytics.org/research/developing-africas-minerals-resources/

Baker McKenzie. Global Mining Outlook 2024. 2024.
  https://www.bakermckenzie.com/en/insight/publications/2024/02/global-mining-outlook

Binder Dijker Otte (BDO) Global. Annual Mining Report 2025: Transforming the Industry with Sustainability, Innovation & Critical Minerals. 2025.
  https://www.bdo.global/en-gb/insights/global-industries/natural-resources/annual-mining-report-2025

African Financial Services Investment Conference (AFSIC) – Investing in Africa. Unlocking the Potential: Investing in African Mining. 2025.
  https://www.afsic.net/agenda/

Global Monitoring for Environment and Security & Africa (GMES & Africa) — African Union (AU). Earth Observation (EO) Services.
  https://au.int/en/GMESAfrica/services

African Group on Earth Observations (AfriGEO) Regional Initiative. African GeoPortal.
  https://afrigeo.africageoportal.com/

South African National Space Agency (SANSA). Earth Observation Data & Satellite Services. Pretoria.
  https://www.sansa.org.za/earth-observation/

British Geological Survey (BGS). OneGeology/Africa and BGS Datasets. Keyworth.
  https://onegeology.org/
  https://www.bgs.ac.uk/datasets/

United States Geological Survey (USGS), Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Center. EarthExplorer & Mineral Resources Online Spatial Data.
  https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/
  https://mrdata.usgs.gov/

Responsible Minerals Initiative (RMI). Responsible Minerals Assurance Process (RMAP) — Smelter and Refiner Data.
  https://www.responsiblemineralsinitiative.org/rmap/

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). Country Dashboards.
  https://eiti.org/countries

IV. Deployment — African Union Frameworks, Policy, Trade, Digital/Infrastructure Enablement

African Union (AU). Africa Mining Vision (AMV). Addis Ababa, 2009.
  https://au.int/en/ti/amv/about

African Union Commission (AUC) / African Minerals Development Centre (AMDC). AMV Action Plan & Country Mining Visions (CMVs). 2011–2025.
  https://amdc.org.za/

African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) Secretariat. Agreement Establishing the AfCFTA and Annexes (Rules of Origin; Trade in Goods). Accra, 2018–2025.
  https://afcfta.au.int/en/documents

African Union Commission (AUC). Agenda 2063: The Africa We Want — Ten-Year Implementation Plans. Addis Ababa, 2015–2025.
  https://au.int/agenda2063

African Union Commission (AUC). African Green Minerals Strategy (AGMS). Addis Ababa, 2025.
  https://au.int/en/documents/20250320/african-green-minerals-strategy

African Union Executive Council. Decision EX.CL/Dec.1280(XLVI) on the Draft African Union Green Minerals Strategy. Addis Ababa, 2025.
  https://archives.au.int/handle/123456789/10771

African Union Assembly. Decisions of the 38th Ordinary Session. Addis Ababa, 2025.
  https://archives.au.int/handle/123456789/10806

United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA). Transforming Africa’s Mining — Policy Papers & Country Profiles. Addis Ababa, 2018–2025.
  https://www.uneca.org/search/site?search=transforming%20africa%27s%20mining

African Development Bank (AfDB). Africa’s Critical Minerals Reports (2023–2025) / Inclusive Growth Initiatives. Abidjan.
  https://www.afdb.org/en/topics-and-sectors/initiatives-partnerships/africa-critical-minerals

Southern African Development Community (SADC). Protocol on Mining & Regional Mining Vision. Gaborone.
  https://www.sadc.int/pillars/infrastructure-and-services/mining

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Directive C/DIR.3/05/09 on Mining Policy Harmonization. Abuja.
  https://ecowas.int/document/directive-c-dir-3-05-09/

East African Community (EAC). Extractive Industries Frameworks. Arusha.
  https://www.eac.int/sectors/extractive-industry

African Union Development Agency – New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AUDA–NEPAD). Programme for Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA) Priority Action Plan 2021–2030. Midrand, 2021.
  https://www.nepad.org/programme/programme-infrastructure-development-africa-pida

African Union Development Agency – New Partnership for Africa’s Development (AUDA–NEPAD). Mining 4.0 in Africa. Midrand, 2024.
  https://www.nepad.org/publication/mining-40-africa

African Union Commission (AUC). Digital Transformation Strategy for Africa 2020–2030. Addis Ababa, 2020.
  https://au.int/en/documents/20200518/digital-transformation-strategy-africa-2020-2030

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) / International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). ISO/IEC 27001:2022 — Information Security, Cybersecurity and Privacy Protection. Geneva, 2022.
  https://www.iso.org/standard/82875.html

International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Artificial Intelligence (AI) for Good Global Summit. Geneva, 2023.
  https://aiforgood.itu.int/

University of Cape Town (UCT). Digital Transformation in African Mining. Cape Town, 2024.
  https://www.gs.uct.ac.za/

V. African Geological Surveys and Regional Institutions (Consolidated; retains brief subject lines)

Organisation of African Geological Surveys (OAGS). Pan-African geoscience coordination and capacity building (data sharing with national surveys). Pretoria, 2019–2025.
  https://www.oagsafrica.org/

African Geological Information Centre (AGIC) — United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) / African Minerals & Geosciences Centre (AMGC). Continental geological information services and catalogues supporting ingestion and metadata harmonization. Dodoma, 2019–2025.
  https://www.seamic.org/agic

African Minerals & Geosciences Centre (AMGC) (formerly Southern and Eastern Africa Mineral Centre (SEAMIC)). Regional laboratory, geoinformation, and training hub for dataset validation and skills development. Dar es Salaam, 2025.
  https://www.seamic.org/

Geological Society of Africa (GSA). Knowledge exchange and continental mapping resources relevant to thematic overlays. Nairobi, 2022.
  https://gsafr.org

Council for Geoscience (CGS), South Africa. National Geoscience Research Portal and datasets (lithology, deposits, geohazards). Pretoria, 2021–2025.
  https://geoscience.org.za/national-geoscience-research-portal

Geological Survey of Namibia (GSN), Ministry of Mines & Energy. Geological mapping, mineral inventory, and data services. Windhoek, 2019–2025.
  https://gsn.gov.na/

Geological Survey of Tanzania (GST). National geoscience data and mineral resources information. Dodoma, 2019–2025.
  https://www.gst.go.tz/

Nigeria Geological Survey Agency (NGSA). National mineral resources mapping and datasets. Abuja, 2019–2025.
  https://ngsa.gov.ng/

Geological Survey of Ethiopia (GSE). Geological mapping and mineral resources datasets. Addis Ababa, 2019–2025.
  http://www.gse.gov.et/

Directorate of Geological Survey and Mines (DGSM), Uganda. National geological and mineral resources surveys. Entebbe, 2019–2025.
  https://www.dgsm.go.ug/

Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development (MMMD), Zambia — Geological Survey Department. National geological datasets and mineral inventory. Lusaka, 2019–2025.
  https://www.mmmd.gov.zm/geological-survey-department/

Office National des Hydrocarbures et des Mines (ONHYM), Morocco. Geoscience data portal and project pipeline. Rabat, 2019–2025.
  https://www.onhym.com/

Botswana Geoscience Institute (BGI). Botswana Geoscience Portal — open geodata services. Lobatse, 2020–2025.
  https://geos.bgi.org.bw/portal/

Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development (RCMRD). Continental web GIS and capacity platform for visualization. Nairobi, 2023–2025. https://rcmrd.maps.arcgis.com/apps/webappviewer/index.html?id=dd3ed16f23434acb9cc71ad1d50499

African Energy Commission (AFREC). Energy–minerals statistical interfaces for cross-sector analysis. Algiers, 2019–2025.
  https://afrec-energy.org/statistics

United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Regional Office for Africa. Regional environmental datasets and guidance for ESG layers tied to mining footprints. Nairobi, 2019–2025.
  https://www.unep.org/regions/africa

VI. Global Outlooks, Geopolitics, Trade & Competitiveness

International Energy Agency (IEA). The Role of Critical Minerals in Clean Energy Transitions. Paris, 2021 (updated web editions 2023+).
  https://www.iea.org/reports/the-role-of-critical-minerals-in-clean-energy-transitions

International Energy Agency (IEA). Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025. Paris, 2025.
  https://www.iea.org/reports/global-critical-minerals-outlook-2025

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Constructing a Ranking of Critical Materials for the Global Energy Transition. Abu Dhabi, 2024.
  https://www.irena.org/Publications/2024/May/Constructing-a-Ranking-of-Critical-Materials-for-the-Global-Energy-Transition

International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). Geopolitics of the Energy Transition: Critical Materials. Abu Dhabi, 2023.
  https://www.irena.org/Publications/2023/Jul/Geopolitics-of-the-Energy-Transition-Critical-Materials

World Bank. Minerals for Climate Action: The Mineral Intensity of the Clean Energy Transition. Washington, DC, 2023.
  https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/entities/publication/0e5ab816-2b65-59d7-927c-45f8570f8d7d

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Technical Note on Critical Minerals: Supply Chains, Trade and Value Chains. Geneva, 2023.
  https://unctad.org/system/files/official-document/ditccom2023d1_en.pdf

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). Critical Minerals (Topic Hub & Global Trade Update). Geneva, 2023–2025.
  https://unctad.org/topic/commodities/critical-minerals

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Inventory of Export Restrictions on Industrial Raw Materials. Paris, 2024–2025.
  https://www.oecd.org/trade/topics/raw-materials/

United States Department of Defense (DoD). Strategic and Critical Materials 2025 Report on Stockpile Requirements. Washington, DC, 2021.
  https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=861225

International Monetary Fund (IMF). Regional Economic Outlook: Sub-Saharan Africa — Analytical Note “Digging for Opportunity.” 2024.
  https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/REO/SSA/Issues/2024/04/19/reo-ssa-april-2024

Brookings Institution. Africa’s Strategic Positioning in the Global Green Revolution. Washington, DC, 2023.
  https://www.brookings.edu/articles/africas-strategic-positioning-in-the-global-green-revolution/

Atlantic Council. Aubrey Hruby. From Greenfield Projects to Green Supply Chains: Critical Minerals in Africa as an Investment Challenge. Washington, DC, 2024.
  https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/from-greenfield-projects-to-green-supply-chains/

Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). Gracelin Baskaran. Prospects for United States Minerals Engagement with Africa. Washington, DC, 2023.
  https://www.csis.org/analysis/prospects-us-minerals-engagement-africa

Policy Center for the New South (PCNS). Otaviano Canuto; Shakhawat Emran. “Africa’s Minerals Will Shape the Future of Global Power.” Rabat, 2025.
  https://www.policycenter.ma/publications/africas-minerals-will-shape-future-global-

United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). UN Comtrade / Comtrade+. New York.
  https://comtradeplus.un.org/

World Bank. World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS). Washington, DC.
  https://wits.worldbank.org/

Observatory of Economic Complexity (OEC). OEC Data Portal. Cambridge, MA.
  https://oec.world/

TrendEconomy. Harmonized System (HS) Trade Explorer & Analytics.
  https://trendeconomy.com/

Guillaume Pitron. The Rare Metals War: The Dark Side of Clean Energy and Digital Technologies. London: Scribe, 2020.
  https://scribepublications.com.au/books-authors/books/the-rare-metals-war

Narendra T. Mancheri. Chinese Monopoly on Rare Earth Elements: Implications for Supply Chain Security. Cham: Springer, 2015.
  https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-81-322-2476-1

Eugene Gholz. Rare Earth Elements and National Security. New York: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR), 2014.
  https://www.cfr.org/report/rare-earth-elements-and-national-security

Marc Humphries. Rare Earth Elements: The Global Supply Chain. Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service (CRS), 2010–2022.
  https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/details?prodcode=R41347

Benjamin K. Sovacool; Saleem H. Ali; Morgan Bazilian; et al. “Sustainable minerals and metals for a low-carbon future.” Science 367(6473), 2020: 30–33.
  https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aaz6003

Schrijvers, D., et al. (2020). “A Review of Methods and Data to Determine Raw Material Criticality.https://research.tudelft.nl/files/69469167/1_s2.0_S0921344919305233_main.pdf

Schicho, M. (2024). “Criticality assessment for raw materials: perspectives and methodological choices.” Mineral Economics:https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13563-024-00474-7